Chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) is a common form of intracranial hemorrhage, but its optimal management remains unclear. Following surgical evacuation, CSDH may recur at a rate of 2.3% to 38.7% depending on the operative techniques employed.6,7,10,20,21
Several studies have been undertaken in an effort to identify predictors for CSDH recurrence. However, the factors predicting recurrence are not clear yet. In many of these studies, coagulopathy or anticoagulant drug use,3,7,13,20,25 male sex,10,25 hypertension,20,22 diabetes,3,17,22 bilateral hematomas,20,22 larger preoperative hematoma volume,3,23 septations,6,23,24 heterogeneous or mixed density on CT,8,11,18,22,23 iso- or hypointensity on T1-weighted MRI,4 preoperative midline shift,20,24 persistence of mass effect after surgery,3,13 larger postoperative residual hematoma,6,23 and postoperative pneumocephalus9,16,24 were found to be associated with an increased rate of recurrence. The risk of recurrence is reduced with hematomas that appeared homogenous on preoperative imaging.3,24 More controversial are other factors including the type of surgery,15 use of a subdural drain,12,19,21,27 intraoperative irrigation,7,9,25 and postoperative posture.1
Most of these studies have evaluated recurrence risk with only a single or few predictors, possibly missing the interaction of other variables and confounders. In the current study, we intended to address this problem using a database maintained by a group of neurosurgeons at a single large academic institution for over 10 years. We focused on identifying risk factors associated with the need for repeat surgery for the treatment of CSDH.
Methods
Inclusion of Patients
We retrospectively reviewed consecutive cases involving patients who presented with CSDH to an academic tertiary care center in the United States between 2006 and 2016 and were treated with surgical evacuation.
Included Variables
The following data were recorded: sex, age, operation date, history of trauma or other mechanism, comorbidities, anticoagulant use and type (including aspirin, warfarin, clopidogrel, ticagrelor, heparin, etc.), presenting Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, preoperative neurological deficits, hematoma characteristics (laterality, density characteristics on CT, intensity on MRI, maximum thickness, location, and presence or absence of membranes and loculations), preoperative midline shift, postoperative CT characteristics (pneumocephalus, maximum hematoma/fluid thickness after surgery, and percent hematoma thickness change after surgery), intraoperative details (type of anesthesia, type of surgery, number and location of burr holes [in cases of burr hole evacuation], opening of any existing internal membrane, saline irrigation volume, use of drain, drain type [external ventricular drain (EVD), Jackson-Pratt, or Blake-Bard], including the respective drain size), complications, and whether the patient required additional surgery to evacuate a recurrent hematoma. Percent hematoma change after surgery was calculated using the same axial CT cut and the following equation: (preoperative maximum hematoma thickness − postoperative maximum hematoma thickness)/preoperative maximum hematoma thickness.
The most recent follow-up data, including status of the CSDH (confirmed by an imaging modality), were also recorded.
The outcome measure was reoperation after the first surgery (due to residual hematoma, continued symptoms, acute SDH, or recurrence within 3 months). Although there was no unified institutional protocol, the decision to operate was generally made based on either worsening of neurological symptoms or continued or increased midline shift on the postoperative CT. Univariable (independent t-test), bivariable (chi-square), and multivariable (multiple logistic regression) analyses were performed to determine which, if any, of the studied factors were associated with an increased risk of reoperation. The multivariable logistic regression was performed only with variables that yielded a p value < 0.1 in univariable analysis. Moreover, probit analysis was used to make probability predictions based on percent hematoma evacuation and preoperative midline shift. Statistical analysis was performed using PASW Statistics 18 (Predictive Analytics Software, SPSS Inc.). Statistical significance was defined by a p value < 0.05.
Results
Patient and Treatment Demographics
During the study period, 325 patients (mean age 71.6 years, range 28–98 years, male/female ratio 2.3) underwent a total of 446 operations. Unilateral evacuations were performed in 266 patients and bilateral evacuations in 59. A CT scan was always performed within the first 24 hours after surgery. The mean postoperative follow-up period for the entire patient cohort was 20.2 months (range 1–119 months). There were 191 burr hole drainages (BHDs) and 255 craniotomies. The number of patients with and without reoperations is shown in Table 1. A 12.9% reoperation rate was observed. Complications are summarized in Table 2. All cases complicated by clinically significant acute SDH required repeat surgery (p < 0.05), but other complications did not influence reoperation. There were 4 deaths.
Frequency of repeat operations in 325 patients with CSDH
| No. of Repeat Ops | No. of Patients* |
|---|---|
| 0 | 224 w/ unilat SDH, 57 w/ bilat |
| 1 | 32 w/ unilat SDH, 2 w/ bilat |
| 2 | 6 (all w/ unilat SDH) |
| 3 | 2 (all w/ unilat SDH) |
| 4 | 2 (all w/ unilat SDH) |
Four patients died during their initial hospitalization. These patients are included in the count of patients with no repeat operations.
Complications observed in the perioperative period
| Complication | No. of Pts |
|---|---|
| Acute SDH | 7 |
| ICH | 2 |
| Acute coronary syndrome | 2 |
| Arterial thrombosis (at site of arterial line insertion) | 1 |
| Seizures | 1 |
| Subdural empyema | 1 |
| Encephalopathy | 1 |
ICH = intracerebral hemorrhage; pts = patients.
Antiplatelet and Anticoagulant Therapies
Prior to surgery, 81, 70, 24, and 3 patients were receiving, respectively, aspirin, warfarin, clopidogrel, and ticagrelor. Six patients (previously on warfarin) were receiving heparin before their second surgery. Twenty-four patients were receiving more than one of these drugs. All patients on anticoagulant/antiplatelet therapy received reversal treatment before undergoing surgery (intravenous vitamin K plus either fresh frozen plasma or prothrombin complex concentrate for warfarin, platelet infusion for clopidogrel and aspirin, and protamine for heparin). The mean international normalized ratio (INR) on the day of surgery was 1.2 (range 1.0–1.6). The preoperative hematoma thickness and percent hematoma thickness change were not different in patients receiving anticoagulant/antiplatelet therapy compared with those who did not (p = 0.67 and p = 0.79, respectively).
Univariate and Bivariate Analyses of Factors Predicting Reoperation
We first evaluated the association of various individual clinical variables with the need for reoperation. Univariable analysis showed that use of warfarin or clopidogrel, mixed hypo- and isointensity on T1-weighted MRI, greater preoperative midline shift, greater hematoma/fluid thickness on 1st postoperative day CT, less decrease in maximum hematoma thickness after surgery, use of monitored anesthesia care (MAC), and lack of intraoperative irrigation all led to significantly higher rates of reoperation. Factors such as sex, age, use of aspirin, heparin, or ticagrelor, presenting GCS score, presence of neurological deficits, hematoma side, preoperative hematoma thickness, preoperative hematoma density characteristic in CT, hematoma location, presence of air on postoperative CT, opening the internal membrane during surgery, surgical evacuation technique (BHD or craniotomy), and number and location of burr holes, however, did not affect the reoperation rate. The presence of loculations on preoperative CT, a larger amount of intraoperative irrigation volume, lack of drain use or use of smaller size drains (EVD) showed a nonsignificant trend toward higher reoperation rate (Fig. 1 and Table 3).
Reoperation rate based on surgical approach and drain use. Crani = craniotomy.
Effects of variables on reoperation
| Variable | Reop Pts | Non-Reop Pts | p Value, Uni- & Bivariable Analysis | p Value, Multivariable Analysis | OR (95% CI), Multivariable Analysis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographic & clinical characteristics | |||||
| Sex | 0.08 | 0.9 | NA | ||
| Male | 84.1% | 66.3% | |||
| Female | 15.9% | 33.7% | |||
| Anticoagulant use | 60.6% | 51.1% | 0.19 | ||
| Aspirin | 24.2% | 27.0% | 0.32 | NA | NA |
| Clopidogrel | 18.2% | 5.2% | 0.006** | 0.04 | 9.9 (1.1–90.9) |
| Warfarin | 36.4% | 21.3% | 0.04* | 0.03 | 7.9 (1.2–50) |
| Heparin | 3.0% | 1.7% | 0.29 | NA | NA |
| Ticagrelor | 0% | 1.1% | 0.27 | NA | NA |
| Neurological deficit | 48.7% | 50.5% | 0.14 | NA | NA |
| Imaging characteristics | |||||
| Hematoma side | NA | NA | 0.93 | NA | NA |
| Hematoma density in CT | 0.91 | NA | NA | ||
| Mixed (hyper- & hypodense) | 57.9% | 51.3% | |||
| Hypodense | 21.1% | 22.3% | |||
| Isodense | 21.1% | 23.7% | |||
| Hematoma intensity in T1 MRI | 0.004** | 0.99 | NA | ||
| Hypointense | 0% | 19.6% | |||
| Mixed hypo- & isointense | 40% | 0% | |||
| Isointense | 0% | 34.8% | |||
| Mixed hyper- & isointense | 0% | 0% | |||
| Hyperintense | 60% | 43.5% | |||
| Hematoma intensity in T2 MRI | 0.15 | NA | NA | ||
| Hypointense | 0% | 0% | |||
| Mixed hypo- & isointense | 0% | 0% | |||
| Isointense | 20% | 19.6% | |||
| Mixed hyper- & isointense | 40% | 4.3% | |||
| Hyperintense | 40% | 76.1% | |||
| Hematoma location | 0.10 | 0.74 | NA | ||
| Hematoma loculation | 51.9% | 46.2% | 0.08 | 0.003** | 12.3 (2.7–54.3) |
| Postop air | 94.7% | 91.8% | 0.70 | NA | NA |
| Op characteristics | |||||
| Internal membrane opening | 69.0% | 56.8% | 0.11 | 0.78 | NA |
| Anesthesia method | <0.001*** | 0.37 | NA | ||
| Intubation | 96.4% | 99.7% | |||
| MAC | 3.6% | 0.3% | |||
| Evacuation technique | 0.84 | NA | NA | ||
| Craniotomy | 55.2% | 58.2% | |||
| Burr hole | 44.8% | 41.8% | |||
| Burr hole location (for BHD only) | 0.50 | NA | NA | ||
| Frontal | 23.1% | 14.6% | |||
| Frontal & parietal | 61.5% | 60.9% | |||
| Parietal | 15.4% | 24.5% | |||
| No. of burr holes, mean | 1.6 | 1.6 | 0.75 | NA | NA |
| Irrigation | 93.1% | 98.4% | 0.02* | 0.67 | NA |
| Drain use | 39.7% | 49.1% | 0.32 | NA | NA |
| Drain type | 0.49 | NA | NA | ||
| None | 51.6% | 61.4% | |||
| Small (EVD) | 15.8% | 15.8% | |||
| Large (Jackson-Pratt, Blake-Bard) | 32.6% | 22.8% | |||
| Univariable analysis | |||||
| Age in yrs, mean | 74.0 | 71.2 | 0.16 | NA | NA |
| Presenting GCS score, mean | 14.1 | 14.5 | 0.30 | NA | NA |
| Hematoma thickness before op (mm), mean | 20.9 | 19.1 | 0.06 | 0.16 | 1.1 (0.98–1.2) |
| Hematoma thickness on 1st postop day (mm), mean | 15.5 | 11.3 | <0.001*** | <0.001*** | |
| Percent hematoma thickness change after op, mean | 23.3 | 41.6 | <0.001*** | <0.001*** | 0.95 (0.93–0.97) |
| Midline shift before op (mm), mean | 7.9 | 6.1 | 0.01* | 0.44 | 1.1 (0.9–1.3) |
| Irrigation vol (liters), mean | 2.3 | 1.5 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 5.1 (0.8–32.4) |
| Drain external size (mm), mean | 2.3 | 2.9 | 0.21 | NA | NA |
NA = not applicable.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
Multivariate Analysis of Factors Predicting Reoperation
Multivariate analysis showed that presence of loculations, clopidogrel use, warfarin use, increased amount of residual hematoma/fluid, and decreased percent hematoma change after surgery significantly predicted the need for reoperation (Table 3).
Analysis of Probability of Reoperation
We performed a probit analysis to show the probability of reoperation based on the percent change in hematoma thickness and the preoperative midline shift. Results showed that 0% (no reduction), 50%, and 100% (complete resolution of hematoma after surgery) changes in hematoma thickness were associated with 41%, 6%, and < 1% reoperation rates, respectively (p < 0.001). To evaluate if the same trend existed in spite of different preoperative hematoma thickness values, we then stratified the data based on preoperative hematoma thickness (0- to 1-cm, 1- to 2-cm, 2- to 3-cm, and 3- to 4-cm groups) and repeated the probit analysis for the probability of reoperation based on the percent change in hematoma thickness (Fig. 2). Multivariable analysis showed that both percent change in hematoma thickness and stratified preoperative hematoma thickness values significantly predicted the need for reoperation (p = 0.001 and 0.004, respectively). In addition, 0-mm, 8.6-mm, 14.5-mm, 19.6-mm, and 24.1-mm shifts were associated with 9%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% probability rates of reoperation, respectively (p = 0.018).
Probability of need for reoperation based on percent hematoma thickness change after surgery. The data for the whole series of patients and data after stratification based on preoperative hematoma thickness are shown.
Discussion
CSDH is a common form of intracranial hemorrhage. If large or symptomatic, it is addressed surgically through burr hole trephination or craniotomy, with a reported recurrence rate ranging from 2.3% to 38.7% for different surgical techniques.6,7,10,20,21 Although many investigators have tried to elucidate factors responsible for recurrence and reoperation, there is an ongoing debate about which parameters are relevant in this matter. Among the established factors are presence of coagulopathy or anticoagulant drug use, presence of CSDH loculations, larger preoperative hematoma volume, presence of significant postoperative residual hematoma, and postoperative pneumocephalus.3,6,7,10,13,16,20,23–25 In 2 meta-analyses that included 19 randomized clinical trials and 250 studies each, heterogeneity of hematoma on CT, use of intraoperative irrigation, and drain use were identified as factors predictive of the need for reoperation.2,14 Table 4 summarizes studies that investigated factors predicting an increased or decreased risk of recurrence or need for reoperation. Several studies, however, have evaluated recurrence risk with respect to a few factors, likely missing the interaction between other variables and confounders. Our study is among the largest series reported to date.
Published studies with predictors of CSDH recurrence
| Authors & Year | No. of Pts | Outcome | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Higher Recurrence | Lower Recurrence | ||
| Ro et al., 2016 | 130 | Younger age (<75 yrs), isodensity of hematoma on CT, & short duration from symptom to op | |
| Jang et al., 2015 | 93 | Double burr hole, irrigation, & lack of coagulopathy | |
| Kim et al., 2015 | 368 | Male pts, pts w/ malignant neoplasm history, single-layer CSDH & isodensity CSDH | |
| Schwarz et al., 2015 | 193 | Midline shift, arterial hypertension, bilat hematomas, & prior treatment w/ vit K antagonists | |
| Leroy et al., 2015 | 140 | Preop anticoagulant therapy & mass effect on postop CT scan | |
| Goto et al., 2015 | 429 | MRI T1 iso-/hypointensity | |
| Pang et al., 2015 | 303 | Hematological disease, prior shunt op, & DM | |
| Jack et al., 2015 | 331 | CSDH septation & larger postop SDH vol | |
| Kim et al., 2014 | 152 | Irrigation, postop pneumocephalus | |
| Song et al., 2014 | 97 | Heterogeneous density in CT, hypertension, DM, early removal of drainage tube, bilat hematomas | |
| Singh et al., 2014 | 246 | Use of drain | |
| Jeong et al., 2014 | 125 | High- or mixed-density in CT | |
| Stanišić et al., 2013 | 107 | The preop hematoma vol, iso- or hyperdensity in CT, laminar & separated CT densities, higher residual total hematoma cavity vol on 1st postop day | |
| Ohba et al., 2013 | 177 | Large pneumocephalus | |
| Chon et al., 2012 | 420 | Postop midline shift ≥5 mm, DM, preop Sz, preop hematoma thickness ≥20 mm, anticoagulant therapy, laminar & separated CT density | Homogeneous CT density |
| Tahsim-Oglou et al., 2012 | 247 | Male sex & use of enoxaparin | Copious intraop irrigation |
| Santarius et al., 2009 | 269 | Drain insertion | |
| Mondorf et al., 2009 | 193 | Craniotomy | Burr-hole evacuation |
| Yu et al., 2009 | 97 | Duration of drainage >3 days | |
| Ko et al., 2008 | 255 | High or mixed density in CT | |
| Abouzari et al., 2007 | 84 | Assuming an upright posture soon after op | |
| Stanišić et al., 2005 | 99 | Separated type, frontal base type, a midline shift >5 mm, presence of acute subdural clots, interval from head trauma to initial surgery <60 days, hematoma thickness >10 mm, & massive pneumocephalus | Homogeneous CT density |
DM = diabetes mellitus; Sz = seizure; vit = vitamin.
Our results confirm previous observations showing that the volume of residual hematoma/fluid, degree of midline shift, and presence of loculations on the preoperative scans predict the need for repeat surgery. In fact, our results showed that the volume of residual hematoma/fluid (calculated either alone or in relation to the preoperative volume as “percent hematoma change”) is the strongest factor predicting a need for repeat surgery in CSDH. Our analysis model showed that a 50% decrease in maximum hematoma thickness on the first postoperative CT is associated with a less than 10% risk of reoperation. We also observed that the absence of change in hematoma volume resulted in a 41% reoperation rate (not 100% as would be expected). One explanation for this observation would be that the fluid collected after surgery is a mixture of residual hematoma fluid, CSF, and irrigation fluid. Therefore, there is not always a need to go back to immediate reoperation as this residual collection is different from the initial scan and will resolve over time in a substantial number of patients. Indeed, with expectant therapy in neurologically stable patients, good outcomes would likely be observed. Stratification of data based on preoperative hematoma thickness (0–1 cm, 1–2 cm, 2–3 cm, and 3–4 cm) showed a similar trend.
Our study built on the current body of literature by addressing newer and less-investigated predictive factors. Although anticoagulant and antiplatelet use is well known as a risk factor for recurrence,3,7,13,20,25 this is the first study to investigate various agents individually and more specifically. We found that only warfarin and clopidogrel (and not aspirin) are associated with a higher risk of reoperation. Among imaging characteristics of the hematoma, the most significant prognostic factors for reoperation, other than midline shift, hematoma volume (or thickness), and loculation, are its MRI characteristics. Our results showed a significantly higher reoperation rate in hematomas showing mixed iso- and hypointensities on T1-weighted MRI. The predictive role of MRI has been previously shown in very few studies. Goto et al., for instance, found that T1-weighted MRI is the single strongest imaging modality predicting recurrence in CSDH.4 However, MRI is not routinely performed in CSDH, decreasing its relevance in everyday practice. We also showed that the mode of anesthesia plays a role in determining the rate of repeat surgery, as there were more reoperations in patients who were not placed under general anesthesia for the initial operation (i.e., those in whom MAC or intravenous sedation was used). Regarding the role of intraoperative saline irrigation, we showed that the outcome is better in cases in which irrigation was employed, which is in agreement with results published by other groups.5,7,25 We also showed that the results seem best with 1–1.5 L of irrigation, but not with copious amounts exceeding 2 L.
Our results did not confirm and validate a role for opening the internal hematoma membrane in accordance with previous findings by others.26 Although prior studies have shown that use of a subdural drain reduces the recurrence rate in CSDH,14,21 our data were more controversial in this regard. We showed a decrease, albeit a statistically nonsignificant one, in the reoperation rate for patients who had a drain placed (both for those who underwent BHD and those who underwent craniotomy). We also showed the same trend regarding drain size (i.e., lower reoperation using larger drains).
Our results suggest that neither evacuation type (BHD vs craniotomy) nor opening of internal membranes (which can be better achieved through craniotomy) had a statistically significant influence on reoperation, in accordance with the results of a previous decision analysis that showed a higher utility of BHD compared with craniotomy, as craniotomy was associated with fewer recurrences but more frequent and more serious complications.12
Limitations
Our study is limited by its retrospective nature. A prospective, randomized controlled trial would be needed to minimize the introduction of bias into the study design. Nevertheless, the retrospective nature of this study allows us to collect and provide data from a large patient cohort. The study is further limited by the fact that different surgeons have different thresholds for operation and reoperation, which cannot be captured in this study and has been previously reported on.14 Most neurosurgeons base their decision to operate upon the initial hematoma volume and the patient’s neurological status. They reoperate if the patient’s neurological status worsens after the surgery or if the hematoma size or midline shift increases on CT.
Conclusions
The results of our study showed that use of warfarin or clopidogrel, mixed hypo- and isointensity in T1-weighted MRI, hematoma loculation, higher preoperative midline shift, greater hematoma/fluid thickness on the 1st postoperative day CT, decreased percent change in hematoma thickness following surgical evacuation, use of MAC, and absence of intraoperative irrigation were predictive of reoperation. Most importantly, our study found that 0%, 50%, and 100% changes in hematoma thickness following evacuation, were associated with 41%, 6%, and < 1% reoperation rates, respectively.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Ms. Patricia Baum, MS, for her help with this study.
Disclosures
The authors report no conflict of interest concerning the materials or methods used in this study or the findings specified in this paper.
Author Contributions
Conception and design: Thomas, Motiei-Langroudi. Acquisition of data: Motiei-Langroudi, Shi, Adeeb, Gupta. Analysis and interpretation of data: Thomas, Motiei-Langroudi, Stippler, Adeeb. Drafting the article: Motiei-Langroudi. Critically revising the article: Thomas, Motiei-Langroudi, Stippler, Griessenauer, Kasper, Arle, Alterman. Reviewed submitted version of manuscript: all authors. Statistical analysis: Motiei-Langroudi. Administrative/technical/material support: Thomas, Motiei-Langroudi, Stippler, Papavassiliou, Kasper, Arle, Alterman, Ogilvy. Study supervision: Thomas, Stippler.
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