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Deep Brain Stimulation

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Cortical and subcortical brain shift during stereotactic procedures

W. Jeffrey Elias, Kai-Ming Fu, and Robert C. Frysinger

Object

The success of stereotactic surgery depends upon accuracy. Tissue deformation, or brain shift, can result in clinically significant errors. The authors measured cortical and subcortical brain shift during stereotactic surgery and assessed several variables that may affect it.

Methods

Preoperative and postoperative magnetic resonance imaging volumes were fused and 3D vectors of deviation were calculated for the anterior commissure (AC), posterior commissure (PC), and frontal cortex. Potential preoperative (age, diagnosis, and ventricular volume), intraoperative (stereotactic target, penetration of ventricles, and duration of surgery), and postoperative (volume of pneumocephalus) variables were analyzed and correlated with cortical (frontal cortex) and subcortical (AC, PC) deviations.

Results

Of 66 cases, nine showed a shift of the AC by more than 1.5 mm, and five by more than 2.0 mm. The largest AC shift was 5.67 mm. Deviation in the x, y, and z dimensions for each case was determined, and most of the cortical and subcortical shift occurred in the posterior direction. The mean 3D vector deviations for frontal cortex, AC, and PC were 3.5 ± 2.0, 1.0 ± 0.8, and 0.7 ± 0.5 mm, respectively. The mean change in AC–PC length was −0.2 ± −0.9 mm (range −4.28 to 1.66 mm). The volume of postoperative pneumocephalus, assumed to represent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) loss, was significantly correlated with shift of the frontal cortex (r = 0.640, 64 degrees of freedom, p < 0.001) and even more strongly with shift of the AC (r = 0.754, p < 0.001). No other factors were significantly correlated with AC shift. Interestingly, penetration of the ventricles during electrode insertion, whether unilateral or bilateral, did not affect volume of pneumocephalus.

Conclusions

Cortical and subcortical brain shift occurs during stereotactic surgery as a direct function of the volume of pneumocephalus, which probably reflects the volume of CSF that is lost. Clinically significant shifts appear to be uncommon, but stereotactic surgeons should be vigilant in preventing CSF loss.

In Journal of Neurosurgery Volume 107: Issue 5 (Nov 2007)

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Incidence of symptomatic hemorrhage after stereotactic electrode placement

Charles A. Sansur, Robert C. Frysinger, Nader Pouratian, Kai-Ming Fu, Markus Bittl, Rod J. Oskouian, Edward R. Laws, and W. Jeffrey Elias

Object

Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) is the most significant complication associated with the placement of stereotactic intracerebral electrodes. Previous reports have suggested that hypertension and the use of microelectrode recording (MER) are risk factors for cerebral hemorrhage. The authors evaluated the incidence of symptomatic ICH in a large cohort of patients with various diseases treated with stereotactic electrode placement. They examined the effect of comorbidities on the risk of ICH and independently assessed the risks associated with age, sex, use of MER, diagnosis, target location, hypertension, and previous use of anticoagulant medications. The authors also evaluated the effect of hemorrhage on length of hospital stay and discharge disposition.

Methods

Between 1991 and 2005, 567 electrodes were placed by two neurosurgeons during 337 procedures in 259 patients. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) was performed in 167 procedures, radiofrequency lesioning (RFL) of subcortical structures in 74, and depth electrodes were used in 96 procedures in patients with epilepsy. Electrodes were grouped according to target, patient diagnosis, use of MER, patient history of hypertension, and patient prior use of anticoagulant medication (stopped 10 days before surgery). The Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) was used to evaluate the effect of comorbidities. The CCI score, patient age, length of hospital stay, and discharge status were continuous variables. Symptomatic hemorrhages were grouped as transient or leading to permanent neurological deficits.

Results

The risk of hemorrhage leading to permanent neurological deficits in this study was 0.7%, and the risk of symptomatic hemorrhage was 1.2%. A patient history of hypertension was the most significant factor associated with hemorrhage (p = 0.007). Older age, male sex, and a diagnosis of Parkinson disease (PD) were also significantly associated with hemorrhage (p = 0.01, 0.04, 0.007, respectively). High CCI scores, specific target locations, and prior use of anticoagulant therapy were not associated with an increased risk of hemorrhage. The use of MER was not found to be correlated with an increased hemorrhage rate (p = 0.34); however, the number of hemorrhages in the patients who underwent DBS was insufficient to draw definitive conclusions. The mean length of stay for the DBS, RFL, and depth electrode patient groups was 2.9, 2.6, and 11.0 days, respectively. For patients who received DBS and RFL, the mean duration of hospitalization in cases of symptomatic hemorrhage was 8.2 days compared with 2.7 days in those without hemorrhaging (p < 0.0001). Three of the seven patients with symptomatic hemorrhages were discharged home.

Conclusions

The placement of stereotactic electrodes is generally safe, with a symptomatic hemorrhage rate of 1.2%, and a 0.7% rate of permanent neurological deficit. Consistent with prior reports, this study confirms that hypertension is a significant risk factor for hemorrhage. Age, male sex, and diagnosis of PD were also significant risk factors. Patients with symptomatic hemorrhage had longer hospital stays and were less likely to be discharged home.

In Journal of Neurosurgery Volume 107: Issue 5 (Nov 2007)