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Shunt infection prevention practices in Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network–Quality: a new quality improvement network for hydrocephalus management

Mandeep S. Tamber, Hailey Jensen, Jason Clawson, Nichol Nunn, John C. Wellons III, Jodi Smith, Jonathan E. Martin, and John R. W. Kestle

OBJECTIVE

Knowledge-based tools used to standardize perioperative care, such as the shunt infection prevention protocol of the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN), have demonstrated their ability to reduce surgeon-based and center-based variations in outcomes and improve patient care. The mere presence of high-quality evidence, however, does not necessarily translate into improved patient outcomes owing to the implementation gap. To advance understanding of how knowledge-based tools are being utilized in the routine clinical care of children with hydrocephalus, the HCRN-Quality (HCRNq) network was started in 2019. With a focus on CSF shunt infection, the authors present baseline data regarding CSF shunt infection rates and current shunt infection prevention practices in use at HCRNq sites.

METHODS

Baseline shunt surgery practices, infection rate, and risk factor data were prospectively collected within HCRNq. No standard infection protocol was recommended, but site use of a protocol was implied if at least 3 of 6 common shunt infection prevention practices were used in > 80% of shunt surgical procedures. Univariable and multivariable analyses of shunt infection risk factors were performed.

RESULTS

Thirty sites accrued data on 2437 procedures between November 2019 and June 2021. The unadjusted infection rate across all sites was 3.9% (range 0%–13%) and did not differ among shunt insertion, shunt revision, or shunt insertion after infection. Protocol use was implied for only 15/30 centers and 60% of shunt operations. On univariable analysis, iodine/DuraPrep (OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.37–0.88, p = 0.02) and the use of an antibiotic-impregnated catheter in any segment of the shunt (or both) decreased infection risk (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.34–0.82, p = 0.01). Iodine-based prep solutions (OR 0.56, 95% 0.36–0.86, p = 0.02) and the use of antibiotic-impregnated catheters (OR 0.52, 95% CI 0.34–0.81, p = 0.01) retained significance in the multivariable model, but no relationship between protocol use and infection risk was demonstrated in this baseline analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors have demonstrated that children undergoing CSF shunt surgery at HCRNq sites share similar demographic characteristics with other large North American multicenter cohorts, with similar observed baseline infection rates and risk factors. Many centers have implemented standardized shunt infection prevention practices, but considerable practice variation remains. As such, there is an opportunity to decrease shunt infection rates in these centers through continued standardization of care.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Publish Before Print

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The role of traditional social determinants of health in referral patterns, timing of surgery, and Chiari Health Index for Pediatrics–determined quality of life in children with symptomatic Chiari type I malformation

Katherine A. Kelly, Bradley S. Guidry, Gunther W. Wong, Harrison C. Thomas, Mariam Girgis, Chevis N. Shannon, John C. Wellons III, and Michael J. Cools

OBJECTIVE

Understanding the impact of the social determinants of health on the utilization of healthcare resources is an important step in eliminating inequalities. The goal of this study was to determine the role of social determinants of health in referral patterns, timing of consultation/intervention, and quality of life in children with Chiari malformation type I (CM-I).

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted of children aged 0 to 18 years who underwent surgical treatment for CM-I at a single pediatric facility from 2015 to 2019. The variables included demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, referral patterns, timing, and quality of life data based on the Chiari Health Index for Pediatrics (CHIP).

RESULTS

The cohort consisted of 103 surgically treated CM-I patients. No differences were seen in race, sex, insurance, or household income when evaluating referral source (community, specialist, or emergency department) or when comparing patients with incidental versus symptomatic findings. In the evaluation of timing from initial evaluation to surgery, no statistical differences were seen between racial, sex, insurance status, or income groups. Children from households of lower median family income were significantly more likely to report pain at the time of consultation (pain group median [interquartile range] $46,660 [$41,004–$50,367] vs nonpain group $53,604 [$41,427–$59,828], p = 0.004). Those in the lower-income group also reported lower CHIP scores corresponding to increased symptomatology in the nonpain physical symptoms (p = 0.004) and psychosocial domains (p = 0.018).

CONCLUSIONS

There was no evidence of a difference in referral patterns or a delay in time from clinic presentation to surgery based on the traditional social determinants of health categories. Children from households in the lower-income group were associated with increased severity of pain and nonpain symptoms.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 32: Issue 6 (Dec 2023)

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Comparison of outcomes in the management of abdominal pseudocyst in children with shunted hydrocephalus: a Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network study

Vijay M. Ravindra, Hailey Jensen, Jay Riva-Cambrin, John C. Wellons III, David D. Limbrick Jr., Jonathan Pindrik, Eric M. Jackson, Ian F. Pollack, Todd C. Hankinson, Jason S. Hauptman, Mandeep S. Tamber, Abhaya V. Kulkarni, Brandon G. Rocque, Curtis Rozzelle, William E. Whitehead, Jason Chu, Mark D. Krieger, Tamara D. Simon, Ron Reeder, Patrick J. McDonald, Nichol Nunn, John R. W. Kestle, and

OBJECTIVE

Abdominal pseudocyst (APC) can cause distal site failure in children with ventriculoperitoneal shunts and is specifically designated as an infection in Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN) protocols. Specific management and outcomes of children with APCs have not been reported in a multicenter study. In this study, the authors investigated the management and outcomes of APC in children with shunted hydrocephalus who were treated at centers in the HCRN.

METHODS

The HCRN Registry was queried to identify children < 18 years old with shunts who were diagnosed with an APC (i.e., a loculated abdominal fluid collection containing the peritoneal catheter with abdominal distention and/or displacement of peritoneal contents). The primary outcome was shunt failure after APC treatment. The primary variable was reimplantation of the distal catheter after pseudocyst treatment back into the peritoneum versus implantation in a nonperitoneal site. Other risk factors for shunt failure after APC treatment and variability in APC management were investigated.

RESULTS

Among 141 children from 14 centers who underwent first-time management of an APC over a 14-year period, the median time from previous shunt surgery to APC diagnosis was 3.8 months. Overall, 17.7% of children had a positive culture: APC cultures were positive in 14.2% and CSF cultures in 15.6%. Six other children underwent shunt revision without removal; all underwent reoperation within 1 month. There was no difference in shunt survival (log-rank test, p = 0.42) or number of subsequent revisions within 6, 12, or 24 months for shunts reimplanted in the abdomen versus those implanted in a nonperitoneal location. Nonperitoneal implantation was associated with more noninfectious revisions (42.3% vs 22.9%, p = 0.019), whereas infection was more common after reimplantation in the abdomen (25.7% vs 7.0%, p = 0.003). Univariable analysis demonstrated that younger age at APC diagnosis (8.3 vs 12.2 years, p = 0.006) and prior shunt procedure within 12 weeks of APC diagnosis (59.5% vs 40.5%, p = 0.012) were associated with shunt failure after APC treatment. Multivariable modeling confirmed that prior shunt surgery within 12 weeks of APC diagnosis was independently associated with failure (HR 1.79 [95% CI 1.04–3.07], p = 0.035).

CONCLUSIONS

In the HCRN, APCs in the setting of CSF shunts are usually managed with externalization. Shunt surgery within 12 weeks of APC diagnosis was associated with risk of failure after APC treatment. Although no differences were found in overall shunt failure rate, noninfectious shunt revisions were more common in the nonperitoneal distal catheter sites, and infection was a more common reason for failure after reimplantation of the shunt in the abdomen.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 32: Issue 3 (Sep 2023)

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Building consensus for the medical management of children with moderate and severe acute spinal cord injury: a modified Delphi study

Travis S. CreveCoeur, Nikita G. Alexiades, Christopher M. Bonfield, Douglas L. Brockmeyer, Samuel R. Browd, Jason Chu, Anthony A. Figaji, Mari L. Groves, Todd C. Hankinson, David H. Harter, Steven W. Hwang, Andrew Jea, Steven G. Kernie, Jeffrey R. Leonard, Jonathan E. Martin, Matthew E. Oetgen, Alexander K. Powers, Curtis J. Rozzelle, David L. Skaggs, Jennifer M. Strahle, John C. Wellons III, Michael G. Vitale, and Richard C. E. Anderson

OBJECTIVE

The focus of this modified Delphi study was to investigate and build consensus regarding the medical management of children with moderate and severe acute spinal cord injury (SCI) during their initial inpatient hospitalization. This impetus for the study was based on the AANS/CNS guidelines for pediatric SCI published in 2013, which indicated that there was no consensus provided in the literature describing the medical management of pediatric patients with SCIs.

METHODS

An international, multidisciplinary group of 19 physicians, including pediatric neurosurgeons, orthopedic surgeons, and intensivists, were asked to participate. The authors chose to include both complete and incomplete injuries with traumatic as well as iatrogenic etiologies (e.g., spinal deformity surgery, spinal traction, intradural spinal surgery, etc.) due to the overall low incidence of pediatric SCI, potentially similar pathophysiology, and scarce literature exploring whether different etiologies of SCI should be managed differently. An initial survey of current practices was administered, and based on the responses, a follow-up survey of potential consensus statements was distributed. Consensus was defined as ≥ 80% of participants reaching agreement on a 4-point Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree). A final meeting was held virtually to generate final consensus statements.

RESULTS

Following the final Delphi round, 35 statements reached consensus after modification and consolidation of previous statements. Statements were categorized into the following eight sections: inpatient care unit, spinal immobilization, pharmacological management, cardiopulmonary management, venous thromboembolism prophylaxis, genitourinary management, gastrointestinal/nutritional management, and pressure ulcer prophylaxis. All participants stated that they would be willing or somewhat willing to change their practices based on consensus guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS

General management strategies were similar for both iatrogenic (e.g., spinal deformity, traction, etc.) and traumatic SCIs. Steroids were recommended only for injury after intradural surgery, not after acute traumatic or iatrogenic extradural surgery. Consensus was reached that mean arterial pressure ranges are preferred for blood pressure targets following SCI, with goals between 80 and 90 mm Hg for children at least 6 years of age. Further multicenter study of steroid use following acute neuromonitoring changes was recommended.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine Volume 38: Issue 6 (Jun 2023)

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Intrauterine closure of myelomeningocele defects with primary linear repair versus bipedicle fasciocutaneous flaps: a post-MOMS cohort study with long-term follow-up

Matthew E. Pontell, Aaron M. Yengo-Kahn, Emily Taylor, Morgan Kane, J Michael Newton, Kelly A. Bennett, John C. Wellons III, and Stephane A. Braun

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of in utero bipedicle flaps on maternal-fetal morbidity/mortality, the need for CSF diversion, and long-term functional outcomes.

METHODS

Eighty-six patients who underwent fetal myelomeningocele repair from 2011 to 2021 at a single institution were reviewed. Primary outcomes included intrauterine fetal demise, postnatal death, postnatal myelomeningocele repair dehiscence, and CSF diversion by final follow-up.

RESULTS

The cohorts were no different with regard to race, ethnicity, maternal age at fetal surgery, body mass index, gravidity, parity, gestational age at fetal surgery, estimated fetal weight at fetal surgery, or fetal lesion level. Of the 86 patients, 64 underwent primary linear repair and 22 underwent bipedicle flap repair. There were no significant differences in rates of intrauterine fetal demise, postnatal mortality, midline repair site dehiscence, or the need for CSF diversion by final follow-up. Operative times were longer (32.5 vs 18.7 minutes, p < 0.001) and gestational age at delivery was lower (232 vs 241 days, p = 0.01) in the bipedicle flap cohort, but long-term functional outcomes were not different.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of the total cohort affirms the long-term benefits of fetal myelomeningocele repair. In utero bipedicle flaps are safe and can be used for high-tension lesions without increasing perioperative risks to the mother or fetus. In utero flaps preserve the long-term benefits seen with primary linear repair and may expand inclusion criteria for fetal repair, providing life-changing care for more patients.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 31: Issue 2 (Feb 2023)

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Erratum. Prenatal surgery for myelomeningocele and the need for cerebrospinal fluid shunt placement

John C. Wellons III

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 31: Issue 1 (Jan 2023)

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Endoscopic third ventriculostomy in previously shunt-treated patients

Brandon G. Rocque, Hailey Jensen, Ron W. Reeder, Abhaya V. Kulkarni, Ian F. Pollack, John C. Wellons III, Robert P. Naftel, Eric M. Jackson, William E. Whitehead, Jonathan A. Pindrik, David D. Limbrick Jr., Patrick J. McDonald, Mandeep S. Tamber, Todd C. Hankinson, Jason S. Hauptman, Mark D. Krieger, Jason Chu, Tamara D. Simon, Jay Riva-Cambrin, John R. W. Kestle, Curtis J. Rozzelle, and

OBJECTIVE

Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) is an option for treatment of hydrocephalus, including for patients who have a history of previous treatment with CSF shunt insertion. The purpose of this study was to report the success of postshunt ETV by using data from a multicenter prospective registry.

METHODS

Prospectively collected data in the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN) Core Data Project (i.e., HCRN Registry) were reviewed. Children who underwent ETV between 2008 and 2019 and had a history of previous treatment with a CSF shunt were included. A Kaplan-Meier survival curve was created for the primary outcome: time from postshunt ETV to subsequent CSF shunt placement or revision. Univariable Cox proportional hazards models were created to evaluate for an association between clinical and demographic variables and subsequent shunt surgery. Postshunt ETV complications were also identified and categorized.

RESULTS

A total of 203 children were included: 57% male and 43% female; 74% White, 23% Black, and 4% other race. The most common hydrocephalus etiologies were postintraventricular hemorrhage secondary to prematurity (56, 28%) and aqueductal stenosis (42, 21%). The ETV Success Score ranged from 10 to 80. The median patient age was 4.1 years. The overall success of postshunt ETV at 6 months was 41%. Only the surgeon’s report of a clear view of the basilar artery was associated with a lower likelihood of postshunt ETV failure (HR 0.43, 95% CI 0.23–0.82, p = 0.009). None of the following variables were associated with postshunt ETV success: age at the time of postshunt ETV, etiology of hydrocephalus, sex, race, ventricle size, number of previous shunt operations, ETV performed at time of shunt infection, and use of external ventricular drainage. Overall, complications were reported in 22% of patients, with CSF leak (8.6%) being the most common complication.

CONCLUSIONS

Postshunt ETV was successful in treating hydrocephalus, without subsequent need for a CSF shunt, in 41% of patients, with a clear view of the basilar artery being the only variable significantly associated with success. Complications occurred in 22% of patients. ETV is an option for treatment of hydrocephalus in children who have previously undergone shunt placement, but with a lower than expected likelihood of success.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 30: Issue 4 (Oct 2022)

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Hydrocephalus surveillance following CSF diversion: a modified Delphi study

David S. Hersh, Jonathan E. Martin, Ruth E. Bristol, Samuel R. Browd, Gerald Grant, Nalin Gupta, Todd C. Hankinson, Eric M. Jackson, John R. W. Kestle, Mark D. Krieger, Abhaya V. Kulkarni, Casey J. Madura, Jonathan Pindrik, Ian F. Pollack, Jeffrey S. Raskin, Jay Riva-Cambrin, Curtis J. Rozzelle, Jodi L. Smith, and John C. Wellons III

OBJECTIVE

Long-term follow-up is often recommended for patients with hydrocephalus, but the frequency of clinical follow-up, timing and modality of imaging, and duration of surveillance have not been clearly defined. Here, the authors used the modified Delphi method to identify areas of consensus regarding the modality, frequency, and duration of hydrocephalus surveillance following surgical treatment.

METHODS

Pediatric neurosurgeons serving as institutional liaisons to the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN), or its implementation/quality improvement arm (HCRNq), were invited to participate in this modified Delphi study. Thirty-seven consensus statements were generated and distributed via an anonymous electronic survey, with responses structured as a 4-point Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree). A subsequent, virtual meeting offered the opportunity for open discussion and modification of the statements in an effort to reach consensus (defined as ≥ 80% agreement or disagreement).

RESULTS

Nineteen pediatric neurosurgeons participated in the first round, after which 15 statements reached consensus. During the second round, 14 participants met virtually for review and discussion. Some statements were modified and 2 statements were combined, resulting in a total of 36 statements. At the conclusion of the session, consensus was achieved for 17 statements regarding the following: 1) the role of standardization; 2) preferred imaging modalities; 3) postoperative follow-up after shunt surgery (subdivided into immediate postoperative imaging, delayed postoperative imaging, routine clinical surveillance, and routine radiological surveillance); and 4) postoperative follow-up after an endoscopic third ventriculostomy. Consensus could not be achieved for 19 statements.

CONCLUSIONS

Using the modified Delphi method, 17 consensus statements were developed with respect to both clinical and radiological follow-up after a shunt or endoscopic third ventriculostomy. The frequency, modality, and duration of surveillance were addressed, highlighting areas in which no clear data exist to guide clinical practice. Although further studies are needed to evaluate the clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of hydrocephalus surveillance, the current study provides a framework to guide future efforts to develop standardized clinical protocols for the postoperative surveillance of patients with hydrocephalus. Ultimately, the standardization of hydrocephalus surveillance has the potential to improve patient care as well as optimize the use of healthcare resources.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 30: Issue 2 (Aug 2022)

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Endoscopic third ventriculostomy revision after failure of initial endoscopic third ventriculostomy and choroid plexus cauterization

Anastasia Arynchyna-Smith, Curtis J. Rozzelle, Hailey Jensen, Ron W. Reeder, Abhaya V. Kulkarni, Ian F. Pollack, John C. Wellons III, Robert P. Naftel, Eric M. Jackson, William E. Whitehead, Jonathan A. Pindrik, David D. Limbrick Jr., Patrick J. McDonald, Mandeep S. Tamber, Brent R. O’Neill, Jason S. Hauptman, Mark D. Krieger, Jason Chu, Tamara D. Simon, Jay Riva-Cambrin, John R. W. Kestle, Brandon G. Rocque, and

OBJECTIVE

Primary treatment of hydrocephalus with endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) and choroid plexus cauterization (CPC) is well described in the neurosurgical literature, with wide reported ranges of success and complication rates. The purpose of this study was to describe the safety and efficacy of ETV revision after initial ETV+CPC failure.

METHODS

Prospectively collected data in the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network Core Data Project registry were reviewed. Children who underwent ETV+CPC as the initial treatment for hydrocephalus between 2013 and 2019 and in whom the initial ETV+CPC was completed (i.e., not abandoned) were included. Log-rank survival analysis (the primary analysis) was used to compare time to failure (defined as any other surgical treatment for hydrocephalus or death related to hydrocephalus) of initial ETV+CPC versus that of ETV revision by using random-effects modeling to account for the inclusion of patients in both the initial and revision groups. Secondary analysis compared ETV revision to shunt placement after failure of initial ETV+CPC by using the log-rank test, as well as shunt failure after ETV+CPC to that after ETV revision. Cox regression analysis was used to identify predictors of failure among children treated with ETV revision.

RESULTS

The authors identified 521 ETV+CPC procedures that met their inclusion criteria. Ninety-one children underwent ETV revision after ETV+CPC failure. ETV revision had a lower 1-year success rate than initial ETV+CPC (29.5% vs 45%, p < 0.001). ETV revision after initial ETV+CPC failure had a lower success rate than shunting (29.5% vs 77.8%, p < 0.001). Shunt survival after initial ETV+CPC failure was not significantly different from shunt survival after ETV revision failure (p = 0.963). Complication rates were similar for all examined surgical procedures (initial ETV+CPC, ETV revision, ventriculoperitoneal shunt [VPS] placement after ETV+CPC, and VPS placement after ETV revision). Only young age was predictive of ETV revision failure (p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

ETV revision had a significantly lower 1-year success rate than initial ETV+CPC and VPS placement after ETV+CPC. Complication rates were similar for all studied procedures. Younger age, but not time since initial ETV+CPC, was a risk factor for ETV revision failure.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 30: Issue 1 (Jul 2022)

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Complications and outcomes of posterior fossa decompression with duraplasty versus without duraplasty for pediatric patients with Chiari malformation type I and syringomyelia: a study from the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium

S. Hassan A. Akbari, Alexander T. Yahanda, Laurie L. Ackerman, P. David Adelson, Raheel Ahmed, Gregory W. Albert, Philipp R. Aldana, Tord D. Alden, Richard C. E. Anderson, David F. Bauer, Tammy Bethel-Anderson, Karin Bierbrauer, Douglas L. Brockmeyer, Joshua J. Chern, Daniel E. Couture, David J. Daniels, Brian J. Dlouhy, Susan R. Durham, Richard G. Ellenbogen, Ramin Eskandari, Herbert E. Fuchs, Gerald A. Grant, Patrick C. Graupman, Stephanie Greene, Jeffrey P. Greenfield, Naina L. Gross, Daniel J. Guillaume, Todd C. Hankinson, Gregory G. Heuer, Mark Iantosca, Bermans J. Iskandar, Eric M. Jackson, George I. Jallo, James M. Johnston, Bruce A. Kaufman, Robert F. Keating, Nicklaus R. Khan, Mark D. Krieger, Jeffrey R. Leonard, Cormac O. Maher, Francesco T. Mangano, J. Gordon McComb, Sean D. McEvoy, Thanda Meehan, Arnold H. Menezes, Michael S. Muhlbauer, Brent R. O’Neill, Greg Olavarria, John Ragheb, Nathan R. Selden, Manish N. Shah, Chevis N. Shannon, Joshua S. Shimony, Matthew D. Smyth, Scellig S. D. Stone, Jennifer M. Strahle, Mandeep S. Tamber, James C. Torner, Gerald F. Tuite, Elizabeth C. Tyler-Kabara, Scott D. Wait, John C. Wellons III, William E. Whitehead, Tae Sung Park, and David D. Limbrick Jr.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine differences in complications and outcomes between posterior fossa decompression with duraplasty (PFDD) and without duraplasty (PFD) for the treatment of pediatric Chiari malformation type I (CM1) and syringomyelia (SM).

METHODS

The authors used retrospective and prospective components of the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium database to identify pediatric patients with CM1-SM who received PFD or PFDD and had at least 1 year of follow-up data. Preoperative, treatment, and postoperative characteristics were recorded and compared between groups.

RESULTS

A total of 692 patients met the inclusion criteria for this database study. PFD was performed in 117 (16.9%) and PFDD in 575 (83.1%) patients. The mean age at surgery was 9.86 years, and the mean follow-up time was 2.73 years. There were no significant differences in presenting signs or symptoms between groups, although the preoperative syrinx size was smaller in the PFD group. The PFD group had a shorter mean operating room time (p < 0.0001), fewer patients with > 50 mL of blood loss (p = 0.04), and shorter hospital stays (p = 0.0001). There were 4 intraoperative complications, all within the PFDD group (0.7%, p > 0.99). Patients undergoing PFDD had a 6-month complication rate of 24.3%, compared with 13.7% in the PFD group (p = 0.01). There were no differences between groups for postoperative complications beyond 6 months (p = 0.33). PFD patients were more likely to require revision surgery (17.9% vs 8.3%, p = 0.002). PFDD was associated with greater improvements in headaches (89.6% vs 80.8%, p = 0.04) and back pain (86.5% vs 59.1%, p = 0.01). There were no differences between groups for improvement in neurological examination findings. PFDD was associated with greater reduction in anteroposterior syrinx size (43.7% vs 26.9%, p = 0.0001) and syrinx length (18.9% vs 5.6%, p = 0.04) compared with PFD.

CONCLUSIONS

PFD was associated with reduced operative time and blood loss, shorter hospital stays, and fewer postoperative complications within 6 months. However, PFDD was associated with better symptom improvement and reduction in syrinx size and lower rates of revision decompression. The two surgeries have low intraoperative complication rates and comparable complication rates beyond 6 months.

In Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics Volume 30: Issue 1 (Jul 2022)